{45}
CHAPTER III
THE REAL INTELLECTIVELY KNOWN WITHIN A FIELD:
THE SENTIENT LOGOS
In primordial apprehension one apprehends each real thing in its twin dimensions as individual and in a field. But to intellectively know something in this latter way is not necessarily to intellectively know it in the field manner, i.e., as in a field. Being in a field concerns the notae of the real thing; the field is a dimension of these notae. But intellectively knowing something as in a field is something different: it is intellectively knowing the real thing inasmuch as it is included in the field which it itself has previously determined by its notae; it is to intellectively know not the field-thing but to intellectively know it "in" the field.
The intellection of a real thing in the field of reality is, as I have already said, an ulterior intellection or modalization of the primordial intellection of something real. To be sure, this modalization is not only about being in a field; every intellection of a real thing has the modalization of being intellectively known as a moment of the world. In both cases we not only intellectively know something as "real"*, we also intellectively know what this real thing is "in reality". But in field-type [1] intellection we intellectively know what something is in reality with respect to other real sensed or sensible things; while in the worldly intellection we intellectively know what something is in reality in the world. {46} In this second part of the book I refer only to what something is in respect to other things within a field.
§ 1
FIELD INTELLECTION AS SUCH
This intellection has two distinct aspects and moments. In order to encompass them in a single denomination I shall employ the classical word logos.
This word has many meanings in Greek. But here I refer only to that meaning in which the logos consists in declaratively saying something about something. Now, as I see it, this logos was not conceived by the Greeks in a sufficiently radical way. To do this, I need to rigorously pin down how I understand the logos.
1) Logos stems from the verb legein which means "reunite", "gather together". This is the meaning which still survives in words such as "anthology". In the problem with which we are concerned, the Greeks anchored their idea of legein in this idea of reunion. Now as I see it, this is inadequate. To be sure, legein means "reunite", "gather together"; but reunite what? This is what one must begin by explaining. The Greeks did not attend to this problem. In fact, one reunites and gathers together what is in the field of reality. Whence legein, rather than denoting the reunion itself, should serve to designate an act of reunion qua "field": it is a field legein, i.e., a legein within a field. Beneath the reunion one must go to the fieldness of the legein.
2) From legein the Greeks derived both the word logos and its corresponding idea. From its meaning of "to reunite", legein came to mean "to enumerate", "to count", etc., whence it acquired the meaning of "to say". And this is what the word logos means. Logos has the {48} two meanings of "to say" (legon) and "that which is said" (legomenon). And there the Greeks anchored their reflection. When that which is said is a declaration of what a thing is, the Greeks claim that one deals with the logos in an autonomous sense: declarative logos (logos apophantikos). This declarative logos consists in "declaring something about something" (legein ti kata tinos). The logos always involves a certain duality of "somethings". But the Greeks did not concern themselves with the first "something"; they thought that that which is said can be in itself just an idea. But as I see it this is untenable because the so-called 'ideas' always come from things, and only from them. Whence the declaration of what something is cannot be fully carried out except as based on something else in the field. What something is in reality cannot be understood except by referring it to some other thing within the field. Therefore logos, prior to being a declaration, is intellection of one thing in the field based upon another. And this means that the logos itself is a mode of intellection and hence is not a structure which rests upon itself. The tendency of the Greeks was always in the opposite direction, a tendency which I have termed logification of intellection. At the dawn of philosophy, in Parmenides, there is a growing intervention of phrazein, of expressing; a tendency which culminates in a "discerning with logos", krinein logoi. And this was not just a manner of speaking: the proof is that Parmenides' disciple Zeno is presented to us by Plato as a theoretician of dialectical discussion. Even in theology, logos has been attributed to God, in the philosophical sense of judgement. But this is impossible. Intelligence is not logos; rather, logos is a human mode of intellection. God has intelligence but does not have logos. One cannot logify intellection but on the contrary must intelligize the logos. {49}
3) For the Greeks, logos was a problem of the first magnitude. But they always understood this problem seeing in the logos the supreme form of nous, of intelligence; i.e., the nous as expressed or expressible. After Parmenides, only this logos type of intellection is intellection in the strict sense; the rest is mere doxa, opinion. Regardless of what Parmenides himself understood by doxa, it is certain that Plato and Aristotle understood that doxa is aisthesis, sensing. And so with Parmenides thus ensconced in nous, he tells us that to intellectively know something is the same (tauton) as to intellectively know that this something "is": that which is intellectively known is on, being. The logification of intellection thus brought along with it the entification of reality. And as the logos always involves a certain duality, Parmenides therefore insists that the on, being, is one, hen.
To the Greeks the force of all this was overwhelming. And the proof is the manner in which Plato and Aristotle disputed with Parmenides. To Plato, the identity of what is intellectively known with being leads to the problem of negation: one says of something that it "is not". Hence the "parricide" which Plato believes he is committing against Parmenides is but an act of supreme fidelity: to intellectively know that something "is not" is always to intellectively know that what "is not", "is". That was the idea of the being of non-being in Plato. Aristotle confronted the problem of Parmenides not from this identity of the legomenon with the on, but from the presumed unity of being itself. For Aristotle "being" is expressed in many ways; the unity of being is not destroyed but rather being is endowed with diverse types of unity. His logos is a copulative "one" which possesses different modes of unity.
In the final analysis the Greeks saw the radical problem of logos in the formal plane of being and unity, i.e. in the plane of what is said or expressed. But as I see it the discussion should not have been carried to this formal plane; {50} rather it should have descended to a more fundamental plane.
In the first place, is it true that logos formally falls back upon an "is" (including also the "is not")? The truth is that the Greeks never tell us in what, formally, intellective knowing consists. Nonetheless they believe that intellective knowing and therefore logos is always intellection of the "is". Now as I see it the formal act of intellective knowing is not intellectively knowing the "is", but rather consists in apprehending reality; the formal terminus of intellective knowing is not being but reality. I have explicated this already in the first part of the book. One cannot entify reality, but on the contrary must reify being.
Hence intellective knowing is something previous to any logos, because the real is proposed to the logos in order to be declared. In virtue of this, intellective knowing is not formally judgement, nor saying what the real "is". One cannot logify intellection, but must do the reverse, viz. intelligize the logos; i.e., conceptualize the logos as a mode, as a modalization of intellective knowing, which is to say of the apprehension of the real as real.
Entification of reality and logification of intellective knowing are the two great presuppositions of Greek philosophy. For my part I think that it is necessary to reify being and intelligize the logos. And with that, one reaches the fundamental plane of the logos. What is the nature of this plane?
For the Greeks, intelligence (nous) and sensing (aisthesis) were always opposites. Be as it may the doxa of Parmenides, there is no doubt that Greek philosophy always ascribed the doxa to sensing. But what is sensing? It is of course the presentation of something which in one or another way has a moment of reality. But if this is so, there is never a {51} structural opposition in man between intellective knowing and sensing. As intellective knowing is apprehending the real, it follows that if the real is already presented in and through the senses as real, then intellection itself already has a radically sentient character. There is then no opposition between intellective knowing and sensing, but rather a structural unity. Intellective knowing and sensing are just two moments of a single act, the act of impressively apprehending reality. It is the sentient intelligence whose act is impression of reality. Logos is a modalization of this impression of reality. Logos is not intellection of being but of reality sensed in impression; the "is" of the logos is but the human expression of the impression of reality. Hence ultimately the logos is intrinsically and formally a mode of sentient intellection; it is sentient logos. What does this mean in more concrete terms? We shall answer that question in detail throughout the course of this book; but to orient the reader I shall anticipate some ideas which will be developed later.
Most importantly, I do not refer only to the fact that the logos is based on an impression of reality; in such case it would be only a sensible logos. Rather, I mean that the impression of reality is itself what has need of the logos. And this necessity is what confers upon the logos its sentient character. Logos in effect tells us what something is in reality. And the difference between "real" and "in reality" is determined by the impression of reality in its field moment.
Furthermore, I do not mean that what is intellectively known in the logos is sensed the same as a color or a sound; I can intellectively know, in my logos, irrational numbers, for example. But the fact is that both the color and the irrational numbers pertain to the content of what is intellectively known, whereas the intellection itself in its sentient mode concerns not the content but the mode in which this content shows up in the apprehension. {52} We shall investigate this at some length below. The irrational numbers are not apprehended like a color, but just as color they are apprehended in the same formality of reality, in the same impression of reality in which color is apprehended. An irrational number is not the same as a color, but it is real in the same formality of reality in which the color is real. In both cases the formality of reality is numerically the same. Lgos is sentient not by virtue of what is intellectively known, but by virtue of the mode of its intellection; it is an intellection within the formality of sensed reality.
What is the structure of this logos?
In the first place, logos as mode of intellection is an ulterior mode of mere actualization of the real. This mode consists in being a "re-actualization" within a field of what has already been actualized in the primordial apprehension of reality. Underlying every act of logos is the reactualization of the real within a field. This is what makes of the logos a mode of intellection, a mode of actualization of the real. Logos is to be understood with respect to intellection; we thus have an intelligization of the logos.
In the second place, this actualization is imposed by the impression of reality; it is what bears us from the immediately real to what that real is in reality. What is intellectively known in the logos is what is real in its field moment, i.e., within a field, because every impression of reality is of field-type. Nonetheless the real thus apprehended is not necessarily sensed as within a field. Every impression of reality is, in fact, of field-type; it has a moment of transcendental openness to other sensed things. The sensed real has thus a formality of reality with two moments: an individual moment, so to speak, and a field-type moment, a moment within a field. But apprehending the real in the field manner is something different; it is not apprehending that the individual reality opens up a determinate field, but is {53} apprehending the individual reality based on the reality field itself. And it is not necessary that this always occur; it is not necessary that the individual formality be apprehended in the field manner. But on the other hand, apprehending the individuality in the field manner, i.e. based on the field, is necessarily a mode of sensing. And in this mode of sensing I sense not just that what is apprehended is real, but also what the apprehended thing is in reality. Now, apprehending what something is in reality is nothing but logos. Hence the logos is the field-type mode of sensing reality, and conversely sensing the real in the field manner is already an incipient logos. The logos is, then, a mode of sensing, and sensing is incipiently a mode of logos; it is sentient logos. It is the mode of sensing the real in a field, i.e., the mode of intellectively knowing the real based on the field of sensed reality.
In the third place, the impression of reality sentiently "bears" us to the logos. Hence sensing in the field manner is formally movement. It is not a movement which bears us from one intellection to another; but rather the movement itself is that in which reality is formally reactualized. What is this movement? It is not a simple intentionality, nor a directing of oneself to one terminus from the other. Beneath the intention there lies something more radical: attention. Attention is not merely a psychic phenomenon, but a properly intellective moment, yet not the most radical one. Attention, in fact, is borne from one terminus to the other. And that which attentionally bears us is therefore prior to attention itself. And this is precisely the movement in which the logos formally consists: only because we are moving ourselves do we attend to different termini; and only by attending to different termini do we also have different intentions. Now, that movement is {54} strictly and formally sentient. In order to apprehend something real based on the field we need, within the field itself, to distance ourselves or to step back [2] from the real thing in question. This is not a stepping back with respect to space, but in the ambit of reality, of a reality sensed as formality. That stepping back is thus sentient; it is structurally found to be based on the moment of the "towards" of sentient intellection. It is therefore a stepping back in sentient intellection. And with the thing thus apprehended by stepping back, in the field manner, from the field "toward" it, affirming what it is in reality. Affirmation is the reversion of sentient intellect to the real. Distance is a stepping back in sentient intellection, and the reversion to the thing in sentient intellection is the very essence of affirmation, is the logos. It is a sentient intellection in stepping back within a field. Dynamism, formally constitutive of logos, is being an intellective movement in which we have stepped back in the sensed field of reality.
§ 2
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE LOGOS
This basic structure has, as I have already pointed out, three moments. First, the logos says something about something. Therefore there are two somethings; this is the dual structure of the logos as a mode of intellection. In what does this duality consist? Secondly, the logos moves in this duality. In what does this movement consist? Thirdly, the logos declares what something is in reality, and how it is installed in a reality field as a reality constitutive of the medium of intellection itself. The basic structure of the logos has these three moments: duality, dynamicity, mediality. Only upon this base can there be a declarative logos about something. Let us examine these moments in turn.
I. The duality of intellection in which the sentient logos consists. We shall repeat what has already been said in order to explain it in a coherent fashion. The logos tells us something about a real thing, and what it tells us is what this thing is in reality. And what it tells us of the thing is in turn based on the prior intellection of another real thing, because what it tells us, the so-called 'ideas'-as I have already indicated-do not exist on their own but are the intellection of things. The fact that the logos tells us something about a real thing means that we do not intellectively know what this thing is in reality except by intellection of something prior. Now, these two things-that of which we seek to know what it is in reality, and that prior thing by which we intellectivly know it-are each {56} a terminus of a primordial intellection. And the result is that in the intellection of what something is in reality two apprehensions intervene. First, this thing is apprehended as real in a primordial apprehension; for example, I apprehend something as a reality in a landscape. But there is another apprehension, the apprehension of this same real thing already apprehended, and inasmuch as it is what it is in reality: from what was apprehended in the primordial apprehension we now say that it consists in being a tree. For this, I recur to the previous apprehension of something that was a tree. And it is based on the intellection of this tree that we intellectively know that the real thing in the landscape consists in reality in being a tree. This second apprehension is not a primordial apprehension of reality; it is something different: an apprehension which I shall term dual. For it is certainly true that a real thing is apprehended, but it is so with reference to something previously apprehended.
That which is apprehended, instead of being apprehended directly, is apprehended as a function of a previous apprehension. One has, so to speak, one foot on the thing which is being intellectively known, and the other on something which has already been so known. For this reason, the apprehension is dual. It is thus intellectively known that the thing (of which we seek to know what it is in reality) is the same, similar to, or different from that first and previously known. The apprehension of the real as "real-among" is constitutively dual because this apprehension involves the apprehension of the real thing and the apprehension of that "among" which the thing is. If there were no "among", the apprehension would never be dual. But having an "among", the apprehension is necessarily dual. And as the "among" is sensed, so also is the duality.
What is this duality? Dual apprehension is a mode of actualization of the real. It is not constituted by the fact {57}that some notae of its content are complete. That has nothing to do with the matter, because even the most simple part of its content can be intellectively known in a dual apprehension; the simplicity of content would be a derogation or absorption of all complexity. It is therefore not this which constitutes the dual apprehension. Dual apprehension is a mode of actualization of this content, simple or complex, a mode of being present to me. Hence, dual apprehension is contrasted with the primordial apprehension of reality, which is constituted as a mere actualization of reality. They are then two structurally different modes of actualization. The primordial apprehension is the actualization of the real in and by itself; the dual apprehension is its mode of actualization based on another thing. I repeat, this is a structural difference, and therefore not a difference which is psychic or vital in character.
It is clear that this apprehension is not rigorously dual, but rather plural, because I can and in general do start not from one single thing but several. But in order to simplify matters I shall lump them together under the rubric 'dual'.
In primordial apprehension every possible type of thing is apprehended in a unitary mode; for example, a landscape with trees. But now we do not apprehend these things unitarily; we do not apprehend, as we did before, the landscape with many things. Rather, we apprehend each thing that there is in the landscape. We do not apprehend a "varied landscape", but "various things in a landscape". These diverse things are certainly in the same field, and therefore in "one" actualization; but this "one" actualization is not "unitary". It is rather what I term differential (or 'differentiated') actualization. We are dealing, then, with a unity, but one which is "differential", and not simply "varied". In differential actualization there is a strict unity; otherwise it would not be {58} "one" actualization. But with respect to this unity, things are not merely notae of the landscape; rather each of them is in and by itself a thing. Hence the unity of actualization is differentiated in things, which are differently moments of the unity of actuality.
The differential actualization is a mode of intellective actualization, a mode of a real thing being present to us in sentient intellection. This does not mean that the content of the differential actualization is multiple, but that it is positively actual differentially. Now, upon being differentiated, the apprehension of the real thing becomes converted into something of which we say what it is in reality.
This brings us to a stricter conception of what duality is. To intellectively know what a thing is in reality among others is to go from something priorly apprehended toward something of which I desire to intellectively know what it is in reality. If one were to think that the duality consisted in two apprehensions, the apprehension of the thing of which I desire to intellectively know what it is in reality, and the apprehension of the prior thing to which I recur, then what I would have would be "two" primordial apprehensions of reality; but not "one" dual apprehension. Two "ones" do not make a "two". Duality does not consist in two primordial apprehensions but is a dual apprehension.
In the second place, one might think that this prior presence of the thing, on the basis of which one intellectively knows what another thing is in reality, consists in an internal fusion (the name does not matter), a type of radical reminiscence, so that the apprehension of what the thing is in reality would in large measure be a composite of apprehension and reminiscence. But this is not what constitutes the duality of which we are here speaking. For whatever this fusion may be, {59} the presence of one apprehension in the other is not a fusion; i.e., the duality is not a composition.
The duality in question is thus neither duplicity nor a composition of primordial apprehensions. And this is because duplicity as well as composition affect only the content of intellection, the content of what is dual; but the duality itself is something much simpler and decisive. And this in turn is because the dual apprehension is the apprehension of a "real" thing which I want to apprehend as it is in reality; and in this reality, and not in its content, is where the duality is formally found: to be in reality what is real. Reality has intervened twice, and in this identical formality consists the unity of the two apprehensions. The dual apprehension consists in something like apprehending the reality of a thing in light of the reality of something else priorly apprehended. The prior apprehension is present in the thing which we wish to intellectively know like a light by which this thing is apprehended as it is "in reality". The "based upon" is the light generated by the apprehension of the thing priorly known. And this is the essential point. But it is necessary to fix more precisely just what this light is.
One might think that it is just a type of "comparison" between the second apprehension and the first. But this is not so, because any comparison presupposes an "ap-pearing" of what is compared and is based on that appearing. And it is precisely in this appearing where the dual impression is found. The real thing appears in the light which constitutes the reality of the prior thing. And this light or clarity of appearing is just the dual apprehension. This apprehension is "an" apprehension, but is an apprehension in the light of something priorly apprehended. What we here term "light" {60} is but the moment of each real thing in a field which constitutes reality itself. We are dealing with the fact that it is in the light of the reality in a field of the thing previously apprehended that one apprehends what a real thing is in reality, be it the same, similar, or completely different from the prior thing. And precisely because of this the entire process of intellection along these lines is always saddled with the weight of the old, because the old makes it possible to apprehend what the new is in reality; but it tends to excessively assimilate the new to the old.
In order to prevent misunderstandings, let us summarize what has been said. The primordial apprehension of a real thing, and the apprehension of what this real thing is in reality, are two apprehensions; but only the second is in turn dual. Let us not confuse the two acts of apprehension (primordial apprehension and apprehension of what something is in reality) with the internal duality of the second of the two apprehensions.
Now, this brings us to the possibility of a logos.
1. Every real thing, besides being individual, is de suyo of field nature, i.e., within a field. And this field nature is what determines the field of reality in which the thing is included and which encompasses all the others. This field, then, has been generated by the reality of each thing; which means in turn that the unity of being in a field and being individual is a unity which constitutes within the thing itself a type of unfolding of the two moments in the thing: its "reality", and its "in reality". The logos is intrinsically and formally based on the fact that a real thing refers, within a field, in transcendental openness, to another real thing. The logos is referring intellection, a mode of actuality {61} which refers from the reality of something to what this something is in reality.
2. This unfolding is in turn the intrinsic and formal foundation of the ambit of its actualization in intellective duality. When we refer to a prior thing, the ambit takes shape in which the logos is going to be constituted in a dual intellection. This is the ambit of the proper intelligibility of the logos.
3. This duality is the intrinsic and formal foundation of the apprehension of the two somethings, of the something which is said (ti), and of the something of which it is said (kata tinos). Only because we are referred to something prior can it be intellectively known what this something is. The ambit of the intellective duality is what makes the two apprehensions possible. Only because there is an intellective referral can there be apprehension of an prior thing which illuminates us. With this, the something of this prior thing is constituted in a principle of intelligibility of the real thing.
4. Finally, these two apprehensions are the intrinsic and formal foundation which permits one to say, to intellectively know, a "something" based upon another "determinate something"; i.e., this is the foundation of the logos itself, of the intellection of what something real is in reality. It is the formally dual constitution of the logos. The logos is then radically based upon a modalization of the primordial apprehension of reality. For this reason it is a mode of sentient intellection which in turn has to be conceptualized from within intellection and not the two apprehensions which intervene in saying what something is.
And here we have the first basic structural moment of the logos: duality. But there is a second essential moment, that moment by which one goes from a real thing to another prior one, and inversely from the latter to the former. This "going" is {62} manifestly of dynamic character. The logos "says" something about something, and this saying is a "going", a dynamic intellection. The modalization in which the sentient logos consists is a dynamic modalization; and we must now proceed to examine it.
II. The dynamism of intellection in which the sentient logos consists. As we have just said, in the logos there are two "somethings". And of these two somethings, the logos in dual intellection "says" or "speaks" about one based upon the other. This saying or speaking has its own essential, basic, structure. The logos involves a duality, but not static duality; rather, one in which sentient intellection apprehends one real thing while going, so to speak, from another. The logos, then, consists in a duality in which the two termini are two moments of a unitary movement. This is a dynamic duality, and is the second basic structural moment of the logos. In what does it consist?
1. Above all, this movement starts from the thing already apprehended as real in primordial apprehension. This apprehension as a point of departure is an apprehension in which we already are here-and-now present in the real. What is this "being here-and-now present"? It is just what constitutes a state [estado]. This is an essential concept. Modern philosophy in general has erred regarding the reality of the state. To my way of thinking, this reality must be recovered. In our problem, a state is not a mode of affection counterposed, for example, to acts. If that were so, the state thus understood would be, together with all of its indispensible nuances, a psychological state. Here we are not referring to that at all, but to the state in another sense: "being here-and-now" is a "being situated in" something. Every impression has, as we have already seen in the Part I, a moment of affection. But every impression has another moment, the moment of otherness, which consists in that what is present in an impression doing nothing but remain in accordance with its own formality, be it of {63} stimulus or reality. Here we are interested only in the formality of reality, the "remaining" [3] of what is presented as something on its own. And this remaining is here the essential point; it is the very essence of the "being here-and-now". A state is above all a "remaining". And this "remaining", that in which we have remained, is the point of departure of the movement of the logos.
NOTES
[1] ["field-type", "being in a field", "in the field manner", and "as within a field" all translate the Spanish adverb campalmente, which literally means "field-ly".-trans.]^
[2] [The English to step back is used as the most natural translation of the Spanish distanciar, a word which expresses a concept Zubiri has derived from Heidegger. - trans.]^
[3] [The Spanish quedar means to pause or bring to a pause, to remain in a state, to remain or to stay, as in Tennyson's poem The Lady of Shalott: "She stayed to look down to Camelot."-trans.]^